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East Asian Civilisation. Term 3 Essay Exam no: 343658

Identify and discuss the treatment of two major themes in classical Japanese poetry.

Introduction:

The classical age of Japanese poetry was during the Heian period dating from 794-1185 AD, and the poems of this age adhered to structures and themes which serve to identify them as classical in style. Poetry flourished among the courtly classes in this era and was used: 'in witty conversation at court, for correspondence between friends, and - perhaps most importantly - for messages between lovers' (Carter 1991).

Poetry contests (uta-awase) also gave budding poets, from the middle classes at court society - including men and women - the opportunity to gain in fame and status. The poetry judged the best from these contests became the material used in the compilation of the Kokinshu (literally: 'Anthology of old and new poems') which was the name of the anthology of classical poems compiled by the order of the Emperor Daigo c.905.

A great deal of effort was put into the cultivation of the courtiers poetic ability: 'Chinese influences in diction and imagery, theme and tenor were again prominent: composing poetry was no idle pastime, but a serious business involving the mastery of rhetorical techniques and knowledge of a canon' (Carter 1991). That canon including of course the earlier works of prominent Chinese and Japanese poets and later the Kokinshu anthology.

Major themes:

Out of the twenty chapters of the Kokinshu the number of chapters devoted to the recurrent themes of Japanese classical poetry include: seasonal poetry (6); love poetry (5); miscellaneous (2); mourning (1); palace ceremonies (1); poems in other forms (1) and also one chapter each on congratulatory, parting, travel and naming things. Using the Kokinshu then as our sample (since much of the poetry was used in personal communications and not published) it may be gauged that the most prominent themes in the classical age were those of 'love' and 'the seasons'.

Style and structure:

The poetry of the classical age in general saw a shift from using close imitations of Chinese models (as was the case in the earlier Man'yoshu anthology compiled in the Nara period up to 759) to a freer use of Chinese sources to enrich the Japanese tradition. Hiragana and Katakana were used as well as Chinese script and devices: 'This flowering of aristocratic literature was prepared for by the development of a native syllabary (kana) which permitted the Japanese to write their language much more simply than through the cumbersome use of unmodified Chinese characters that had been used in the Man'yoshu (Hall 1970 p.73)

The distinctive characteristics of classical poems generally follow set patterns which were firmly established during the Heian period and set the standard for several centuries to follow it. The tanka or uta takes the form of a combination of five and seven syllable lines adding up in total to 31 syllables: 5-7-5-7-7. The choka also has alternate lines of five and seven but may go on longer before ending in the 7-7 couplet. The language used; the structures (tanka and choka); the devices e.g. kakekotoba (pivot words); makurakotaba (epithet) and acrostic are well-worn formulas which distinguish this type of poetry. These form an important element of the discussion of the treatment of our two major poetic themes, but also the court culture in itself must be considered as to how these particular themes were treated. The context of court life in Japan and the introduction of the use of the new Japanese syllabary both played a part in shaping the treatment of these themes, and explains the abundance of the poetry of this time.

Formative influence:

The Heian court culture then was the formative influence which established the appropriate subject matter, vocabulary and sentiments of classical poetry: 'If Man'yoshu had left any doubt about the matter, men like Ki no Tsurayuki (c. 872-945) made it clear that poetry in Japanese- or for that matter, in Chinese, when it was still being produced - was a product of court culture meant for a courtly audience. Others could be allowed into the circle of the higher culture the uta represented only by mastering its strictly defined conventions and standards of taste' (Carter 1991 p.75). Classical Japanese poetry on the whole then - which includes those written on the themes of love and the seasons - were characterised by simplicity; short verses and common styles. There was a tendency to compression, but each short poem is part of a sequence. There was a tendency toward spontaneity although due to the compactness of the poems this was in fact skilfully achieved. Poems were a form of social activity demonstrating ability in reading and writing and reading in public. They also provided a rich resource for entertainment, comparison and discussion for the courtly classes.

Poems on love:

One of the greatest poets of the Early Classical period was Ono no Komachi who was a lady-in-waiting at court in the 850's. The love poems which she wrote are described as 'among the most open avowals of passionate physical desire in the classical canon.' (Carter 1991) While adhering to the refined tastes of her time she fearlessly uses strong imagery to put across her passion in a very compact format - which in Japanese is all the more compact!

Miscellaneous Forms. Topic unknown:

When I cannot see him

in the dark of a moonless night,

fire rises in me-

leaping in my burning breast,

charring my heart with its flames.

(Carter 1991 p.87)

As well as passion, which - as indicated above - is dealt with by allegory and imagery rather than directly, some familiar strains in classical love poetry are those of unsatisfied yearnings and separation. This may have been due in part to the tendency of courtiers in this period to be called by their responsibilities away from their loved ones: 'For the avid competition for lands was to send a constant stream of courtiers into the provinces intent on pushing back the frontiers of cultivation' (Hall 1970 p.72). Some women also were unavailable as partners due to their positions - perhaps as priestesses; concubines; temple virgins or ladies-in-waiting - being thus beyond the reach of the prospective suitor but within the reach of his eyes and desires. Also the influence of Buddhism may add to the feeling of resignation and passivity inherent in such poems:

Love. Topic Unknown (Anon):

Although there are days

when waves fail to rise

near Suruga's shore

at Tago, there are no days

when I do not yearn for you.

(Carter 1991 p.91)

There are many anonymous love poems in the Kokinshu with such themes as these. Some poems however like the following demonstrate witty humour and a use of eccentric imagery. The following is anonymous but is known to be a poem spoken by a woman pursued by suitors:

Eccentric Poems (Topic unknown)

Ah, what a trial!

even you make bold, it seems,

to chase after me -

you scarecrow in a paddy

among the foot-wearying hills.

(Carter 1991 p.94)

Poems on seasons:

Even better represented than the theme of love in the Kokinshu, with six chapters devoted to it, is the theme of the seasons - where the Japanese poets refer to the seasons often with allusion to life's brevity or changeableness and to the passing beauties of nature:

Spring. Monk Sosei [late 9th century] A poem from the Empress's Contest During the reign of Emperor Uda.

I shall dig no more

flowering trees to be planted,

for when springtime comes

human affections copy

the blossoms' inconstancy.

(Carter 1991 p.112)

An extremely frequent reference in the seasonal poems is made to the cherry blossom - a blossom of fragility and beauty which is associated in the poems with life's seasonality; it's charm but its short time of full bloom. A traditionalist poet -such as Ki no Tsurayuki (c. 872-945) would strive to keep most strictly to the forms of language and decorum inherent in classical poetry and he was regarded highly by his Emperor in this respect. He was indeed the compiler of Kokinshu and wrote the preface. Later critics complained that his approach: '...had the effect of strangling the life out of poetry. And - though to blame him alone for the general trend of his time is of course unfair - there is some truth to these accusations. Kokinshu which became a standard for all such collections to come, did in fact restrict poetry...to the fixed form of the uta and the fixed thematics of the seasons, love, felicitations and several other topics. And it also strictly limited vocabulary and imagery to what was considered proper and tasteful to the courtier's eye and ear' (Carter 1991 pp. 101-102)

Spring. On seeing cherry blossoms for first time on a tree planted at someone's house (Ki no Tsurayuki)

Blossoming cherry

who would have just this year begun

to understand spring-

would that you might never learn

the meaning of scattering

(Carter 1991 p.103)

As with Love-poetry then, the forms and the language used was fairly well-worn and some might say the imagery repetitive, predictable and restricted, but as with some of the eccentric love-poems there were exceptions to the rule. One poet in particular - Sone no Yoshitada - who wrote at the end of the tenth century, was daring enough to try and break the mould of tradition which surrounded the classical poem.: 'For although his abuses of decorum may seem minor to modern eyes, there is no doubt that critics of his own day....must have been amazed by his colloquial style':

Autumn. Topic unknown

Cry out then, cry out loud-

you cricket in your tangle

of mugwort timber!

The passing of autumn

is indeed so sad a time

(Carter 1991 p.117)

Perhaps a clearer example of his colloquial style is seen in the following which is classed as a Summer poem.

Summer. "The End of the Sixth Month":

This woman of mine

waking up with tangled hair

matted down with sweat-

at noon on a summer day

can I think I don't love her?

(Carter 1991 pp. 117-118)

References to 'tangled hair matted down with sweat' are in strong contrast to the more delicate language traditionally employed, say by Ki no Tsurayuki. At the time his occasionally more earthy style was seen as in bad taste, but his colloquial poems provide a refreshing balance to those on more conformist lines.

Summary:

In conclusion then, the way in which the themes of 'love' and 'the seasons' are expressed and conveyed though the medium of classical Japanese poetry is similar in the poetic structure to the way all the other themes are treated. That is to say that the poems themselves are most often composed in short verses, which may form a longer sequence. When love poems are at their most passionate and ardent they maintain dignity and restraint. Many demonstrate sophistication, expressing thoughtful reflection or yearning for the loved one. Others show witty humour and eccentric rather than traditional imagery. Seasonal poems tend to follow the tradition of well accepted phrases and language and again may express moods of contemplation and sadness as well as making comparisons between the joys of natures seasons and the 'seasons' of human life. As a genre this theme is the best represented in the classical canon and tends to be expressed on very conformist lines with rare examples of a more colloquial style. As poetry goes these classical poems on love and the seasons are extremely compact and when they are well written and the traditional imagery is understood they have the distinct ability to achieve a maximum impact in the minimum amount of words.

References:

Carter, Steven D (1991) Traditional Japanese Poetry - An Anthology Stanford University Press.

Hall, John Whitney (1970) Japan from prehistory to modern times New York, Delacorte Press.

(I have also made use of notes taken during the lectures)

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